Because it’s the Halloween season!
Created by Professor Sarah Schaefer!
This is Not the Garrus-Ware You鈥檙e Looking For: The Curious Case of a 13th Century Pitcher in 51猎奇 Art Collection
Figure 1. Pitcher. Iran (Garrus), 13th century CE. Ceramic with Glaze. Credit Line: Gift of Mr. And Mrs. Carl Moebius. 51猎奇 Art Collection, 1985.086.
David Symanzik-Stock
Art Expose
Spring 2023
Introduction
The provenance of objects in museum collections is always a complicated, and often undecipherable, mystery. It is, however, important to achieve as accurate an understanding of the origins of objects held in these collections as possible to better understand the scope and content of these collections.[i] A 13th century CE Persian pitcher held in the University of Wisconsin 鈥� Milwaukee Art Collection (51猎奇 Art Collection; 1985.086), (Fig. 1), provides an interesting case study as to both the necessity of continued provenance studies on objects in museum collections, but also as to the unfortunate difficulty with such studies. The buff clay ceramic pitcher is coated in a translucent turquoise glaze and is highly decorated with black pigment. Its two main registers incorporate important iconographic elements, typical of the region and period, and the striking turquoise colour, along with the particular dipping applization technique, of the glaze offer some interesting opportunities for better understanding the provenance of the object. As a graduate student research intern, I undertook an exploration of this vessel, aiming to better understand its importance in the 51猎奇 Art Collection. Due to the lack of information currently available on the object specifically, this study necessitated the review of comparative objects 鈥� resulting in the conclusion that the small amount of provenance information available for this vessel might actually need continued research and scrutiny in order to more accurately place this piece in its contextual time and place. Through a comparative visual analysis, the study of this vessel suggests that it is, in fact, not from the Garrus region (or eponymous ware-type) as suggested by initial provenance research but is more likely following ceramic trends from workshops in the Raqqa region, located in Northeastern Syria.[ii] This conclusion not only helps us to better understand the object itself, but also illuminates the true breadth and diversity of objects held in the 51猎奇 Art Collection.
The 13th century in the region which is now comprised of northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syria saw social interaction between significant empires. In Iran and Iraq the Ilkhanid Dynasty (a smaller offshoot of the larger Mongolian Empire, which stretched from the western Pacific coast to eastern Turkey and Mesopotamia) was formed after Mongolian conquests in the early 13th century. The dynasty鈥檚 seat of political power in the region moved during the conquests to northwestern Iran and the ruling Ilkhanid elite soon after adopted Islam as their official region. Although initially very disruptive to ceramic production, the absorption of this region into the larger Mongolian Empire resulted in an environment of huge cultural exchange. Following the introduction of particularly active pro-Islamic cultural policies towards the end of the 13th century, ceramics flourished and began incorporating [iii] While northeastern Syria also fell under Ilkhanid rule for the majority of this period, this region bordered Ayyubid, Crusader, and Mamluk controlled regions and by the end of the 13th century was under Mamluk control.[iv] Thus, collectively, these regions were exposed to an influx of ceramics and production techniques from further east 鈥� through the Mongolian Empire 鈥� but also, to some extent, from the west through connections to Mesopotamian and Eastern Mediterranean trade centers. We see these influences making their way into the design and production of ceramics made locally within these regions 鈥� some of which are evident in the 51猎奇 Art Collection鈥檚 13th century pitcher.
Visual Analysis of 1985.086
The 51猎奇 Art Collection鈥檚 pitcher, dating to the 13th century, exhibits some typical iconographic, morphological, and material elements from this region and period. The pitcher, commonly termed a medium-neck jug, has a circular rim with its neck extending almost completely vertically from the rim to the shoulder of the vessel, which it meets about halfway down the total height of the jug. A handle loops from the top of the neck to the shoulder of the vessel. The body of the jug extends outward from the shoulder and around, finishing at the base 鈥� altogether forming a gourd-like appearance with the neck of the vessel. The jug is completed by a circular foot at the base, approximately of similar diameter to that of the opening of the vessel. This particular shape is reminiscent of other contemporary jugs, such as this 13th century Syrian ewer from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Fig. 2):
Figure 2. Ewer Inscribed with “al-‘izz” (“Glory”) in Floriated Kufic on its Neck. Syria (Raqqa), first half of the 13th century CE. Stonepaste with Glaze. Credit Line: HO Havemeyer Collection, Gift of Horace Havemeyer, 1948. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 48.113.18.[v]
Iconography on the vessel also matches contemporaneous Persian examples, with a black band around the rim of the vessel, black geometric lines and forms in three separate registers (one on the neck, one on the shoulder, and the third on the body) circumscribing the vessel. Black horizontal bands are also painted at somewhat regular (but haphazard) intervals on the handle. Alongside the geometric elements, the highlight of the black painted iconography appears to be what鈥檚 known as kufic script. This technique, developed under Seljuk rule in the 12th century CE, involves morphing calligraphic text (specifically Arabic) along the surface of an object. The script often reads as just one or two words of a positive nature, such as 鈥渂lessing鈥� or 鈥渓uck鈥�. While a translation of the kufic script on this particular pitcher has yet to be done, based on similar script on a vessel at the Walters Art Museum (Fig. 3), it鈥檚 possible that the 51猎奇 Art Collection jug鈥檚 text contains a single portion (separated here by commas) of the following phrase: 鈥淟asting glory, increasing prosperity, mounting good fortune, total happiness鈥�.
Figure 3. Arabesques. Syria, ca. mid 12th 鈥� mid 13th century Ceramic. Credit Line: Acquired by Henry Walters. The Walters Museum of Art (Baltimore, MD), 48.1117.[vi]
Most striking, however, is the turquoise glaze covering the majority (but not all) of the vessel. The glaze itself is likely a combination of various local materials, notably including copper (possibly with a mixture of tin and lead) as the coloring agent which provides the impressive blue-green colour.[vii] It is possible that this particular glaze type was developed to provide a rival to imported Chinese porcelain ceramics. Furthermore, based on the untreated foot of the jug, it appears that the vessel was dipped into the glaze. This method was pretty common and there are many examples of medieval ceramics from this period and region which appear to have been glazed this way. As the glaze did not drip fully over the vessel, however, we can see, near the exposed foot, that the black painted iconography of the vessel was quite likely applied first, prior to the application of the turquoise glaze.
Discussion
This jug (Fig. 1) came into the 51猎奇 Art Collection in 1985 as part of a larger collection of ceramics, glass, metals, and paintings, in the form of a long-term loan from Carl and Janet Moebius. In the early 1990s the collection of objects, including 1985.086, was permanently donated to the collection and underwent the process of accession, or the recording and registration of the objects (from a single source) for the permanent collection and, in this case, the transfer of title of ownership from Carl and Janet Moebius to the 51猎奇 Art Collection.[viii] As part of this transition, an appraisal of the objects was conducted which assessed various aspects of the objects in the accession, such as their material, type, and iconography, alongside similar objects from commercial collections as well as research from academic (such as books) and industry (such as sale catalogues) sources. While many objects in the collection not only received detailed descriptions in the appraisal documents but also sources of comparative objects and research, object 1985.086 had no additional sources or comparative objects. Based on the appraisal documents (which provided the only specific mention of this particular vessel), object 1985.086 was determined to be Garrus-ware, although no sources or comparative objects were cited, and so it was necessary to further investigate how such a conclusion might have been achieved.
This particular type of ware, produced around the 13th century CE, was named for the region it predominantly comes from, Garrus, in northwestern Iran. The key features of this ware are a thick, deep green glaze, with incised linear, geometric, floral, and faunal decoration.[ix] In the process of this particular study of 1985.086, in an attempt to understand why the connection between Garrus-ware and this specific vessel was made, comparative objects from other collections were consulted. In particular, a lid from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Fig. 4) and a fritware jug from the David Collection in Copenhagen (Fig. 5) provide particularly clear examples of this type of ware.
Figure 4. Lid. Iran (Garrus), c. 12th 鈥� 13th century CE. Earthernware with Slip. Credit Line: Purchase, Edward C. Moore Jr. Gift, 1927. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 27.13.4
听Figure 5. Jug. Iran, c. late 12th century CE. Fritware with Decoration Cut Through Slip. The David Collection, Copenhagen, 3/1975.
In both cases, the most distinctive element which denotes the Garrus-ware type is the incised decoration. In the case of Garrus-ware, the undercoat is applied to the vessel鈥檚 surface and set aside until the undercoat has somewhat hardened. In this thicker surface, the decoration is incised, and additional pigments are applied. The vessel is then finished with an additional clear (or occasionally a highly transparent turquoise) glaze. Notably, however, the indentation left by the incised iconography remains present across the surface of the vessel. Furthermore, as is present in Figure 4, the glazes for Garrus-ware are almost always of a darker green finish (likely due to additional copper mixed into the glaze).
In the case of the jug in the 51猎奇 Art Collection (1985.086), we do not have any suggestion of incised decoration, unlike the Garrus-ware objects from other collections. Instead, the decoration, as can be seen through some small chips of glaze as well as beneath the glaze-line near the foot of the vessel, appears to have been applied directly to the untreated surface of the vessel. Additionally, we are lacking the increased green hue of glazes typically associated with Garrus-ware objects. While further research is necessary to better identify whether this jug is an anomalous example of Garrus-ware, as the glaze colour and production of decoration are questionably different on the vessels I found in other collections of Garrus-ware (exemplified by those in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5) than on the one in the 51猎奇 Art Collection, I thus broadened my research to consider typical approaches in other contemporaneous ware-types, under the assumption that the jug in the 51猎奇 Art Collection is more likely representative of typical production and artistic methods than of unique methods. In following this approach, it appears that the jug in the 51猎奇 Art Collection is more closely aligned with typical Raqqa-ware methods of production and decoration.
Raqqa-ware is noted for a couple of predominant traits which more closely match those of the vessel in the 51猎奇 Art Collection. In particular, the dripped turquoise glazing along with the pre-glaze addition of iconography, matches what we see in the jug at 51猎奇. An excellent example of this technique can be seen in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Jar. Syria (Raqqa), ca. late 12th century – early 13th century CE. Stonepast, painted under transparent turquoise glaze. Credit Line: H. O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Horace Havemeyer, 1956. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 56.158.18.[x]
听In addition to the jug shape as a contemporaneous form in Raqqa ceramics (Fig. 2), the clear turquoise glaze on the jar in Figure 6 appears somewhat similar to the 51猎奇 Art Collection 1985.086. In the 51猎奇 jug not only do we see evidence of iconography painted onto the untreated ceramic surface, as can also be seen in Figure 6, but we also see the use of multiple black bands around the rim and neck of the vessel. There is also iconographic similarity between the geometric register on the shoulder of the jar in Figure 6 as well as on the shoulder of the 51猎奇 Art Collection jug. Kufic script and an abstract geometric or florally-inspired background is also seen in the registers on the bodies of both vessels. While these iconographic elements appear to be similar across several 13th century ware-types, examples from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (as shown in Figure 6; see also endnotes) appear to provide very close similarities to 1985.086.
Comparing the two types of ware, Garrus and Raqqa, it seems likely that the object in the 51猎奇 Art Collection is more closely related to Raqqa-ware than Garrus. The similarity in production techniques suggests that, even if this vessel was produced in the Garrus region, it was heavily inspired by ceramics produced in Raqqa. What, then, does this mean for the vessel? Unfortunately, due to the lack of archival information and without further study, there is little further that can be concluded regarding the jug. Given volume of decoration on the exterior of the vessel (the interior is blank), along with the potential meaning of the kufic script, and the lack of a spout (for efficient pouring), it鈥檚 likely that this vessel served a symbolic or functional purpose that did not involve it being used as a container or pourer. While it may be intended to mimic such forms, it is possible that this vessel was more for presentation than use. This does, to some extent, muddy further provenance studies of this object as Raqqa, located in northeastern Syria 鈥� within the Ilkhanate borders 鈥� would have been within reasonable distance of the Garrus region. This object may have been produced by a workshop in or around Raqqa and subsequently exported to Garrus and presented as part of a broader social interaction between individuals from both regions. Alternatively, with so little information to go on (a problem museums are almost always faced with), it鈥檚 also possible that this vessel could have been produced in imitation of Raqqa ware, opening up a number of other possibilities as to its origin.
These functional assumptions aside, the case of this jug from the 51猎奇 Art Collection highlights how continued study of objects held in museum collections, however brief, can turn up new questions and new possibilities. Due to the lack of information, such exploration heavily relied on comparative objects, intrinsically connecting the object at 51猎奇 to other collections across the US. Furthermore, while this study highlights the shortcomings of just how little can be concluded from such a study, it also highlights that the process of asking and challenging assumed designations can encourage a more wholistic, complex, and interesting conversation not only about the objects themselves, but also of their place within the 51猎奇 Art Collection.
Bibliography
Bernsted, Anne-Marie Keblow. Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques. London: Archetype, 2003.
Boarati, Molly. 鈥淲hy Does Provenance Matter?鈥� September 17, 2017. Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University. Accessed, May 5, 2023. .
Carnell, Clarisse and Rebecca Buck. 鈥�3B: Acquisitions and Accessioning.鈥� In MRM5: Museum Registration Methods, edited by Rebecca A. Buck and Jean Allman Gilmore, 44-57. Washington DC: American Association of Museums (AAM) Press, 2010.
Consiglio, Brian. 鈥淧rovenance: how an object鈥檚 origin can facilitate authentic, inclusive storytelling: SISLT鈥檚 Buchanan researching better ways to archive history.鈥� May 20, 2021. College of Education and Human Development: University of Missouri. Accessed, May 5, 2023.
Douglas, Jennifer. 鈥淭oward More Honest Description.鈥� The American Archivist 79, no. 1 (2016): 26鈥�55. .
Fayet, Roger. 鈥溾�楥LEAN鈥� COLLECTIONS: On the Idea of Contamination in the Provenance Discussion.鈥� CrossCurrents 69, no. 3 (2019): 277鈥�90. .
Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn. Raqqa Revisited: Ceramics of Ayyubid Syria. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2006.
Yalman, Suzan, ed. 鈥淭he Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256鈥�1353).鈥� In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2001. Accessed, May 5, 2023. .
Metropolitan Museum of Art. 鈥淭he Eastern Mediterranean, 1000鈥�1400 A.D.鈥� In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2001. Accessed, May 5, 2023. .
[i] While there are numerous studies on the value, and how, of provenance research 鈥� Molly Boanarti, Associate Curator of the Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University provides an exemplary (if brief) discussion of the importance behind understanding provenance (Boarati 2017); see also Consiglio 2021; Fayett 2019; and Douglas 2016
[ii] Garrus (and Garrus-ware) is alternatively spelled Garros (Garros-ware)
[iii] Yalman, Suzan, 鈥淭he Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256鈥�1353),鈥� Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2001, accessed May 5, 2023. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ilkh/hd_ilkh.htm
[iv] 鈥淭he Eastern Mediterranean, 1000鈥�1400 A.D,鈥� Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2001, accessed May 5, 2023. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=07®ion=wae
[v] For more information and comparative objects, see Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Raqqa Revisited (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2006),136-138, 140 (MMA21-23, 25).
[vi] For more information and comparative objects, see Jenkins-Madina Raqqa Revisited, 85 (W90).
[vii] Anne-Marie Keblow Bernsted. Early Islamic Pottery (London: Archetype, 2003), 4-7; 44-50.
[viii] Description of accession based on those provided by Clarisse Carnell and Rebecca Buck, 鈥�3B: Acquisitions and Accessioning,鈥� in MRM5: Museum Registration Methods, eds. Rebecca A. Buck and Jean Allman Gilmore (Washington DC: American Association of Museums (AAM) Press, 2010), 51-52.
[ix] Bernsted, Early Islamic Pottery: Materials & Techniques, 19-23 ; see also Met Lid
[x] For more information and comparative objects, see Jenkins-Madina Raqqa Revisited, 150-157 (MMA35 – MMA42).
Lecture by Sinclair Bell, Professor of Art History, University of Northern Illinois
The visual and material culture of the Roman Empire provides an abundant record of encounters with or simply imaginings of foreign peoples. These images render visible complex formulations of ethnicity, social hierarchies, and power. This lecture surveys the ways in which imperial artists represented the peoples whom the Romans referred to as Aethiopians or Nubians (i.e., 鈥淏lack鈥� Africans) in a variety of visual media. The lecture also considers how and why these works have been (mis)interpreted or sometimes altogether ignored by ancient art historians, and proposes new ways of integrating them into future, critical histories of Roman art.
Professor Bell teaches courses on Greek, Etruscan, and Roman art, and architecture. He has excavated at sites in Italy and Tunisia and worked as a curatorial assistant at museums in Germany and Greece.
Co-Sponsored by 51猎奇 Classics Program, Department of Art History, and Department of Anthropology together with the Milwaukee Society of the Archaeological Institute of America.
Art History Student Welcome Event
We would like to extend to our students an invitation to our Art History Welcome Event on Thursday, September 21st from 4-6pm. The event will take place in Mitchell 191, with a visit to the new exhibition in the Emile H. Mathis Gallery.
The event will function largely as a meet and greet with Undergraduates, Graduates, interested students, and members of our faculty. Snacks and pizza provided. We will discuss the possibility of an Art History Student Group to provide more regular events and museum visits. To do so we will need student volunteers to consider taking on positions of leadership in the group.Even if you can鈥檛 stay the whole time, please stop by for what you can. We look forward to seeing you and hope that your semester is off to a solid start!
Florence, Italy: “Awaken the Dead: Florence as World Maker” (UWinteriM Faculty-led)
Awaken the Dead: Florence as World Maker provides a once-in-a-lifetime encounter with one of the most iconic cities in Art Historical study!听听Students will be immersed in the sights, sounds, and smells of Florence, as the course is taught openly in the streets, churches, piazzas, and markets. As a fusion between rigorous coursework and unique international program, the class will be highly experiential, and taught by an instructor who has led several study-abroad courses in Florence.听听
Students will come away with a deeper understanding of the history of cross-cultural encounter, political intrigue, competitive spirit, and religious fervor that shaped European medieval and renaissance art.听 The course will also include a visit to Pisa, whose history of warfare and maritime trade have left an indelible mark on the city. Visiting these sites in winter will allow students to avoid crowds of tourists while reveling in the festival atmosphere and glowing lights of the Christmas season (which lasts until the Feast of Epiphany on January 6th). New Year鈥檚 will be ushered in with fireworks over the Arno River and celebrations in the streets! Join us for an unparalleled academic and personal journey!
December 29, 2023 (arrival) – January 14, 2024
Program Leader:听Michael Aschenbrenner, Senior Lecturer and Director of Undergraduate Studies, Art History, aschenb3@uwm.edu
For more information:
Art Expos茅 Gallery Talks
The Art Expos茅 are 15-minute presentations in which Gallery Staff, Faculty, or Gallery Interns discuss a mystery art object in the gallery collection. This is a wonderful opportunity to see the results of object-based learning and support our gallery team. Plus, you may see something new and exciting you never knew we had!
Each talk will be at 1pm in the Mathis Art Gallery.
Presentations this semester:
- September 12 – David Pacifico, 51猎奇 Art Collection and Mathis Art Gallery Director
- October 10 – Leigh Mahlik, 51猎奇 Art Collection and Mathis Art Gallery Academic Curator
- November 14 – Carly Neil, Mathis Gallery Graduate Student Curatorial Intern will present on Tuesday at 1pm
- December 11 – Daniel Kennedy,听Mathis Gallery Graduate Student Curatorial Intern will present on Monday at 1pm
Art Works: Recent Donations to the 51猎奇 Art Collection
September 18, 2023 through February 8, 2024
Opening Reception: September 14, 2023, 5-7pm
51猎奇 Gallery Night Thursday, September 21st听from 4-7pm
Art Works听places the spotlight on curation and research practices at the 51猎奇 Art Collection and Emile H. Mathis Art Gallery. Drawing from recent donations and featuring objects of research attention, the exhibition emphasizes the gallery’s mission at work.
The 51猎奇 Art Collection and Emile H. Mathis Art Gallery are distinct in their accessibility to the public and听their听support of graduate and undergraduate training.听Historically, art museums and听collections听have been shaped by听relatively few听people, and听have听quietly听carried on collecting, researching, and displaying听works听with听limited public听input.听Recently, art institutions and museum scholars have begun to lift the curtain.听Art Works听continues this new tradition听of transparency.
The exhibit features pieces by well-known artists such as Dale Chihuly, Andy Warhol, and Alexander Calder.听Lesser-known – but no less significant – artists including Max Arthur Cohn, Karen Fitzgerald, and Carlos Hermosilla Alvarez听are also presented.听Art Works听highlights the key players that make the Mathis Art Gallery a rich听resource for all.
Art Works: Recent Donations to the 51猎奇 Art Collection听was curated by Academic Curator Leigh M.W. Mahlik and features research by former undergraduate and graduate student gallery interns, former gallery teaching assistants, faculty, and gallery staff.
Support for this exhibition is provided by the Friends of Art History, the Max Arthur Cohn Preservation Fund, the Emile H. Mathis Preservation Fund, the Department of Art History, and the College of Letters and Sciences.
Image:
Detail of Karen Fitzgerald,听Lambent, 2005, oil on canvas, Gift of Karen Fitzgerald and Kohler Foundation, Inc., 51猎奇AC 2021.006.03
The Emile H. Mathis Art Gallery
University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee
Mitchell Hall 170
3203 N. Downer Ave
Milwaukee, WI 53211
Museum Hours
Mon 鈥� Thurs: 10 AM 鈥� 4 PM
Fri: CLOSED *
* Visits by appointment only
Professor Wang post on C21 Blog: The Use of Dung in Northern Tibetan Culture鈥揊rom Grassland to Grassland
“Dung is vital for survival in the grassland. The most popular material for fuel is yak-dung, mostly for strong, quick cooking. Just like the Tibetan language has fine-grained terminology for the different stages of maturity of these animals, so as yak-dung: the yellow-colored dried dung of late autumn, those flat pieces used to cover the outer fa莽ade of walls to keep heat inside during winter and outside during summer, those picked up from the top of mountains or flat-land, those from the season when grass was not strong, etc. Its value, said in a folksong: “Yak-dung, you are much precious than gold, burning yourself and bringing warmness and light to humans.”
Read the entire article:
Series, Sets, and Collections: Japanese Books and Prints in the MPL Rare Books Room at Central
Dr. Hilary Snow, 51猎奇 Teaching Faculty in Art History and Asian Studies, will present on the topic of sets and collections, as exemplified in Japanese art, books, and prints from the library collection.
Saturday, April 29, 2023, 12 pm 鈥� 1:30 pm
The Krug Rare Book Room is on the second floor in the Milwaukee Public Library Central Branch at 814 W Wisconsin Avenue.
For more information visit听
Bamana 鈥淢udcloth鈥�: 51猎奇 Art Collection Research
Object ID: 2009.002.24
Object Name: Textile
Artist/Maker: Unrecorded Bamana artist Culture: Bamana People, Mali
Title: Bamana 鈥淢udcloth鈥�
Medium: Woven textiles and resist-dye Dimension Details: H-67 W-45 inches
On Campus Collection: 51猎奇 Art Collection Gift of Mark and Mary Jo Wentzel
One of the most widely celebrated African textile forms is the bogolanfini which is created by the Bamana peoples of Mali. The term means mud-dyed cloth and comes from Bambara, the language of the Bamana. The origins of the art form date back to the twelfth century, and the style has been experiencing a resurgence in popularity since the 1970s. Today, bogolanfini textiles function as a symbol of pride in the Bamana/African identity. Object 2009.002.24 from the 51猎奇 Mathis Gallery is a traditional bogolanfini. Its artist and date of creation are unknown, but it was likely produced between the 19th and 20th centuries.
In the creation of bogolanfini, men would weave strips of cotton cloth and sew them together1. The decoration of the canvas was completed by women, who would first immerse the cloth in a bath of leaf dyes to initiate the resist process. After drying, women would hand-paint the dark areas of the cloth鈥檚 pattern with fermented mud from the Niger River. Once the mud is removed, the dark color is retained because of a reaction between the mud and the leaf extracts.
Bleach is then applied to the areas of negative space, which turn white after drying in the sun for a week.2 The decorative motifs on the cloth are typically abstract patterns and representations of everyday objects. A combination of motifs can express 鈥渁 proverb or a song, articulate a message, or represent an historical event.鈥�3 The textiles are worn by both men and women, initially by performers or hunters. They are also worn during transitional periods of a person鈥檚 life.4 For example, a woman might wear a bogolanfini following childbirth or preceding a marriage.5
In the past, young women would learn how to decorate the textiles from their mothers in a long-term apprenticeship. However, the popularity of European fabrics in the 1960s threatened the continued creation of bogolanfini. Fewer young women desired to learn the technique, which prompted young men to learn in their stead.6 The resurgence of the textile鈥檚 popularity occurred in 1970 and initiated a new generation of mud-cloth creators. The original patterns were still produced, but variations of the designs were newly experimented with in modern clothing and the decorative arts. Today, there is a distinction between traditional bogolanfini and their inspired objects, referred to simply as bogolan.7 Since 1970, both forms have been celebrated as indications of national and cultural pride.
As a bogolanfini, Object 2009.002.24 belongs to one of the most popular West African textile forms. Many mud-cloths retain a yellow tinge from the leaf dyeing process, but this textile serves as an excellent example of the characteristic white-on-black color contrast. It is listed on the collection鈥檚 website as a ceremonial artifact, suggesting that it may have been worn in Bamana performances. A few of the patterns on this object are identifiable as traditional symbols. The three parallel lines are abstract representations of a spindle for weaving cloth, which symbolizes wealth and luxury. This is one of the oldest bogolanfini designs. Also, the diamond formation made up of four dots and separated by triangles may be a variation of a similar pattern that references a belt worn by warriors. This symbol signifies that the wearer is brave. Though the precise meaning of this textile鈥檚 symbols has not been ascertained, its design refers to traditional Bamana social practices and contributes to its function as a distinctive marker of the Bamana/African identity.8
1 鈥淲rapper (Bogolanfini),鈥� The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed November 8, 2022, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/312395.
2 Victoria Rovine, 鈥淏ogolanfini in Bamako: The Biography of a Malian Textile,鈥� African Arts 30, vol. 1 (Winter 1997): 41. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/stable/3337471.
3 鈥淲rapper (Bogolanfini),鈥� The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
4 Jean-Paul Colleyn, ed., Bamana: The Art of Existence in Mali (New York: Museum for African Art, 2001), 51.
5 鈥淲rapper (Bogolanfini),鈥� The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
6 Rovine, 鈥淏ogolanfini in Bamako,鈥� 41.
7 Rovine, 鈥淏ogolanfini in Bamako,鈥� 41.
8 Colleyn, Bamana: The Art of Existence in Mali, 51.
Bibliography
Colleyn, Jean-Paul, ed. Bamana: The Art of Existence in Mali. New York: Museum for African Art, 2001.
Rovine, Victoria. 鈥淏ogolanfini in Bamako: The Biography of a Malian Textile.鈥� African Arts 30, no. 1 (Winter 1997): 40-51, 94-96. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/stable/
3337471.
鈥淲rapper (Bogolanfini).鈥� The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/312395.